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A museum is a "permanent institution in the service of society and of its
development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches,
communicates and exhibits, for purposes of study, education, enjoyment, the
tangible and intangible evidence of people and their environment".
Museum Definitions
The Museums Association definition (adopted 1998) is:
Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning and
enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible
artifacts and specimens, which they hold in trust for society.
A previous Museums Association definition was:
"A museum is an institution which collects, documents, preserves, exhibits and
interprets material evidence and associated information for the public benefit."
However, there have been controversies recently regarding artifacts being
damaged or being exposed to high risk of damage whilst on loan. For example, an
ancient Egyptian stone lion on loan from the British Museum was being manually
carried down a flight of stairs (as shown in a BBC Television documentary 2007).
The supervisor in charge advised the people carrying it if it starts to fall,
let it drop. The irony is that these artifacts have been carefully excavated and
transported, often thousands of miles, without damage. Once arriving at a museum
the artifact usually does not receive the same level of care and attention that
it received whilst being excavated and transported. Another example of this is
the recent return of a Terracotta Army horse on loan from a museum in Rome,
which showed the item to be damaged on return. As yet, there is no
internationally agreed protocol for a level of standard of care of artifacts on
display or on loan from museums.
Etymology
The English "museum" comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as "museums"
(or, rarely, "musea"). It is originally from the Greek mouseion, which denotes a
place or temple dedicated to the Muses (the patron divinities in Greek mythology
of the arts), and hence a building set apart for study and the arts, especially
the institute for philosophy and research at the Library established at
Alexandria by Ptolemy I Soter c280 BCE This was considered by many to be the
first museum/library.
Overview
Museums collect and care for objects of scientific, artistic, or historical
importance and make them available for public viewing through exhibits that may
be permanent or temporary. Large museums are located in major cities throughout
the world and more local ones exist in small cities. Most museums offer programs
and activities for a range of audiences, including adults, children, and
families, as well as those for more specific professions. Programs for the
public may consist of lectures or tutorials by the museum faculty or field
experts, films, musical or dance performances, and technology demonstrations.
Many times, museums concentrate on the host region's culture. Although most
museums do not allow physical contact with the associated artifacts, there are
some that are interactive and encourage a more hands-on approach. Modern trends
in museology have broadened the range of subject matter and introduced many
interactive exhibits, which give the public the opportunity to make choices and
engage in activities that may vary the experience from person to person. With
the advent of the internet, there are growing numbers of virtual exhibits, i.e.
web versions of exhibits showing images and playing recorded sound.
Museums are usually open to the general public, sometimes charging an admission
fee. Some museums have free entrance, either permanently or on special days,
e.g. once per week or year.
Museums are usually not run for the purpose of making a profit, unlike galleries
which engage in the sale of objects. There are governmental museums,
non-governmental or non-profit museums, and privately owned or family museums.
Types of museums
There are very many types of museums, from very large collections in major
cities, covering many of the categories below, to very small museums covering
either a particular location in a general way, or a particular subject, such an
individual notable person. Categories include: fine arts, applied arts, craft,
archaeology, anthropology and ethnology, history, cultural history, military
history, science, technology, children's museums, natural history, numismatics,
botanical and zoological gardens and philately. Within these categories many
museums specialize further, e.g. museums of modern art, local history, aviation
history, agriculture or geology. A museum normally houses a core collection of
important selected objects in its field. Objects are formally accessioned by
being registered in the museum's collection with an artifact number and details
recorded about their provenance. The persons in charge of the collection and of
the exhibits are known as curators.
History museums
History museums cover the knowledge of history and its relevance to the present
and future. Some cover specialized curatorial aspects of history or a particular
locality; others are more general. Such museums contain a wide range of objects,
including documents, artifacts of all kinds, art, archaeological objects. s
specialize in more archaeological findings.
A common type of history museum is a historic house. A historic house may be a
building of special architectural interest, the birthplace or home of a famous
person, or a house with an interesting history. Historic sites can also become
museums, particularly those that mark public crimes, such as Tuol Sleng or
Robben Island. Another type of history museum is a living museum. A living
museum is where people recreate a time period to the fullest extent, including
buildings, clothes and language. It is similar to historical reenactment.
Art museums
Enlarge picture
Czartoryski Museum, Kraków.
Art museum
An Art museum, also known as an art gallery, is a space for the exhibition of
art, usually visual art, and usually primarily paintings, illustrations, and
sculpture. Collections of drawings and old master prints are often not displayed
on the walls, but kept in a print room. There may be collections of applied art,
including ceramics, metalwork, furniture, artist's books and other types of
object.
The first publicly owned museum in Europe was the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.
While initially conceived as a a palace for the offices of Florentian
magistrates (hence the name), it later evolved into a display place for many of
the paintings and sculpture collected by the Medici family or commissioned by
them. After the house of Medici was extinguished, the art treasures remained in
Florence, forming the first modern museums. The gallery had been open to
visitors by request since the sixteenth century, and in 1765 it was officially
opened to the public. The first museum to open to the public was The British
Museum in London, which opened free to the public in 1759 after been funded a
few years earlier in 1753. It was a 'universal museum' with very varied
collections covering art, applied art, archaeology, anthropology, history, and
science, and a library. The science collections, library, paintings and modern
sculpture have since been found separate homes, leaving history, archaeology,
non-European and pre-Renaissance art, and prints and drawings.
The specialised art museum is considered a fairly modern invention, the first
being the Hermitage in St. Petersburg which was established in 1764.
The Louvre in Paris, France was established in 1793, soon after the French
Revolution when the royal treasures were declared for the people. The
Czartoryski Museum in Kraków was established in 1796 by Princess Izabela
Czartoryska. This showed the beginnings of removing art collections from the
private domain of aristocracy and the wealthy into the public sphere, where they
were seen as sites for educating the masses in taste and cultural refinement.
Science museums
Science museums and technology centers revolve around scientific marvels and
their history. To explain complicated inventions, a combination of
demonstrations, interactive programs and thought-provoking media are used. Some
museums may have exhibits on topics such as computers, aviation, physics,
astronomy, and the animal kingdom. Science museums, in particular, may consist
of planetaria, or large theatre usually built around a dome. Museums may have
IMAX feature films, which may provide 3-D viewing or higher quality picture. As
a result, IMAX content provides a more immersive experience for people of all
ages. Also new virtual museums, known as Net Museums, have been appearing. These
are usually web sites belonging to real museums and containing photo galleries
of items found in those real museums. This is very useful for people far away
who wish to see the contents of these museums.
Natural history museums
Museums of natural history and natural science typically exhibit work of the
natural world. The focus lies on nature and culture. Exhibitions may educate the
masses about dinosaurs, ancient history, and anthropology. Evolution,
environmental issues, and biodiversity are major areas in natural science
museums. Notable museums of this type include the Natural History Museum in
London, the Oxford University Museum of Natural History in Oxford, the Muséum
national d'histoire naturelle in Paris, the Smithsonian Institution's National
Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., the American Museum of Natural
History in New York City, the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in
Drumheller, Alberta, and the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.
Zoos and Zoological Gardens
Zoo
Although zoos are not often thought of as museums, they are considered "living
museums." They exist for the same purpose as other museums: to educate, inspire
action, study, and preserve a collection. Notable zoos include the Wildlife
Conservation International in New York, London Zoo, the San Diego Zoo, Berlin
Zoo, Taronga Zoo in Sydney, Australia, Frankfurt Zoo and Zoo Zurich in
Switzerland.
Open air museums
Open-air museum
Open air museums collect and re-erect old buildings at large outdoor sites,
usually in settings of re-created landscapes of the past. The first one was King
Oscar II's collection near Oslo in Norway, opened in 1881. In 1891 Arthur
Hazelius founded the famous Skansen in Stockholm, which became the model for
subsequent open air museums in Northern and Eastern Europe, and eventually in
other parts of the world. Most open air museums are located in regions where
wooden architecture prevail, as wooden structures may be translocated without
substantial loss of authenticity. A more recent but related idea is realized in
ecomuseums, which originated in France.
Other museums
A number of different museums exist to demonstrate a variety of topics. Music
museums may celebrate the life and work of composers or musicians, such as the
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Other music museums include live
music recitals such as the Handel House Museum in London.
A recent development with the expansion of the web, is the establishment of
virtual museums, while some have no counterpart in the real world, such as the
LIMAC which has no physical location and can be confused with the city's own
museum, other online initiatives like the Virtual Museum of Canada provide
physical museums with a web presence, as well as online curatorial platforms
such as Rhizome In addition to this, many museums have turned to technology to
classify their objects. Larco Museum in Lima, Peru was one of the first to place
their entire 45,000 piece collection in an electronic catalog.
Museums targeted for the youth, such as Great Explorations, The Children's
Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida, and the Miami Children's Museum, often
exhibit interactive and educational material on a wide array of topics. The
Baseball Hall of Fame museum is an institution of the sports category. The
Corning Museum of Glass is devoted to the art, history, and science of glass.
Interpretation centres are modern museums or visitors centres that often uses
new means of communication with the public.
Mobile museums
Mobile museum is a term applied to museums that make exhibitions from a vehicle,
such as a van. Some institutions, such as St. Vital Historical Society and the
Walker Art Center, use the term to refer to a portion of their collection that
travels to sites away from the museum for educational purposes. Other mobile
museums have no "home site," and use travel as their exclusive means of
presentation.
Management
The museum is usually run by a director, who has a curatorial staff that cares
for the objects and arranges their display. Large museums often will have a
research division or institute, which are frequently involved with studies
related to the museum's items, as well as an education department, in charge of
providing interpretation of the materials to the general public. The director
usually reports to a higher body, such as a governmental department or a board
of trustees. Objects come to the collection through a variety of means. Either
the museum itself or an associated institute may organize expeditions to acquire
more items or documentation for the museum. More typically, however, museums
will purchase or trade for artifacts or receive them as donations or bequests.
For instance, a museum featuring Impressionist art may receive a donation of a
Cubist work which simply cannot be fit into the museum's exhibits, but it can be
used to help acquire a painting more central to the museum's focus. However,
this process of acquiring objects outside the museum's purview in order to
acquire more desirable objects is considered unethical by many museum
professionals. Larger museums may have an "Acquisitions Department" whose staff
is engaged full time in this kind of activity. Most museums have a collections
policy to help guide what is and is not included in the collection.
Museums often cooperate to sponsor joint, often traveling, exhibits on
particular subjects when one museum may not by itself have a collection
sufficiently large or important. These exhibits have limited engagements and
often depend upon an additional entry fee from the public to cover costs.
History
Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy individuals, families
or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and artifacts. These
were often displayed in so-called wonder rooms or cabinets of curiosities.
Public access was often possible for the "respectable", especially to private
art collections, but at the whim of the owner and his staff.
The first public museums in the world opened in Europe during the 18th century's
Age of Enlightenment:
* the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology in Oxford is the world's oldest
university museum, and the oldest museum in the United Kingdom. It opened in
1683 and the present building dates from 1845.
* the Museo Sacro, the first museum in the Vatican Museums complex, was opened
in Rome in 1756
* the British Museum in London, was founded in 1753 and opened to the public in
1759. Sir Isaac Sloan's personal collection of curios provided the initial
foundation for the British Museum's collection.
* the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, which had been open to visitors on request
since the 16th century, was officially opened to the public 1765
* the Belvedere Palace of the Habsburg monarchs in Vienna opened with an
outstanding collection of art in 1781
These "public" museums, however, were often accessible only by the middle and
upper classes. It could be difficult to gain entrance. In London for example,
prospective visitors to the British Museum had to apply in writing for
admission. Even by 1800 it was possible to have to wait two weeks for an
admission ticket. Visitors in small groups were limited to stays of two hours.
In Victorian times in England it became popular for museums to be open on a
Sunday afternoon (the only such facility allowed to do so) to enable the
opportunity for 'self improvement' of the other - working - classes.
The first truly public museum was the Louvre Museum in Paris, opened in 1793
during the French Revolution, which enabled for the first time in history free
access to the former French royal collections for people of all stations and
status. The fabulous art treasures collected by the French monarchy over
centuries were accessible to the public three days each "décade" (the 10-day
unit which had replaced the week in the French Republican Calendar). The
Conservatoire du muséum national des Arts (National Museum of Arts's
Conservatory) was charged with organizing the Louvre as a national public museum
and the centerpiece of a planned national museum system. As Napoléon I conquered
the great cities of Europe, confiscating art objects as he went, the collections
grew and the organizational task became more and more complicated. After
Napoleon was defeated in 1815, many of the treasures he had amassed were
gradually returned to their owners (and many were not). His plan was never fully
realized, but his concept of a museum as an agent of nationalistic fervor had a
profound influence throughout Europe.
American museums eventually joined European museums as the world's leading
centers for the production of new knowledge in their fields of interest. A
period of intense museum building, in both an intellectual and physical sense
was realized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (this is often called
"The Museum Period" or "The Museum Age"). While many American museums, both
Natural History museums and Art museums alike, were founded with the intention
of focusing on the scientific discoveries and artistic developments in North
America, many moved to emulate their European counterparts in certain ways
(including the development of Classical collections from ancient Egypt, Greece,
Mesopotamia and Rome). It is typically understood that universities took the
place of museums as the centers for innovative research in the United States
well before the start of the Second World War, however, museums to this day
contribute new knowledge to their fields and continue to build collections that
are useful for both research and display.
Museum exhibition design
The design of museums has evolved throughout history. Interpretive museums, as
opposed to art museums, have missions reflecting curatorial guidance through the
subject matter which now include content in the form of images, audio and visual
effects, and interactive exhibits.
Some of these experiences have very few or no artifacts; the National
Constitution Center in Philadelphia, the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles,
being notable examples where there are few artifacts, but have strong, memorable
stories to tell or information to interpret. In contrast, the United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington DC uses many artifacts in their
memorable exhibitions.
Notable international museum exhibition designers include Ralph Appelbaum
Associates, C&G Partners, ESI Design, Burdick Group, André & Associates
Interpretation & Design Ltd.
A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and
the collection of electromagnetic radiation. The earliest known telescopes are
credited to three individuals, Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen,
spectacle-makers in Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar also known as Jacob
Adriaanszoon (see History of telescopes). "Telescope" (from the Greek tele =
'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'; teleskopos = 'far-seeing') was a name
invented in 1611 by Galileo Galilei for his version of the device he based on
Hans Lippershey's instrument . "Telescope" usually refers to optical telescopes,
but there are telescopes that operate in other regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Types of telescope
The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments and is difficult to
define. They all have the attribute of collecting electromagnetic radiation so
it can be studied or analyzed in some manner. The most common type is the
optical telescope. Other types also exist and are listed below.
Optical telescopes
An optical telescope gathers and focuses light mainly from the visible part of
the Electromagnetic spectrum (although some work in the infrared and
ultraviolet). Optical telescopes increase the apparent angular size of distant
objects, as well as their apparent brightness. Telescopes work by employing one
or more curved optical elements - lenses or mirrors - to gather light or other
electromagnetic radiation and bring that light or radiation to a focus, where
the image can be observed, photographed or studied. Optical telescopes are used
for astronomy and in many non-astronomical instruments including theodolites,
transits, spotting scopes, monoculars, binoculars, camera lenses, and
spyglasses. There are three main types:
* The refracting telescope which uses solely an arrangement of lenses.
* The reflecting telescope which uses solely an arrangement of mirrors.
* The catadioptric telescope which uses a combination of mirrors and lenses.
Radio telescopes
Radio telescopes are directional radio antennae that often have a parabolic
shape. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose
openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed. Multi-element Radio
telescopes are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to
synthesize large "virtual" apertures that are similar in size to the separation
between the telescopes: see aperture synthesis. As of 2005, the current record
array size is many times the width of the Earth, utilizing space-based Very Long
Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly
Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) VSOP (VLBI Space
Observatory Program) satellite. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to
optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes)
and Aperture Masking Interferometry at single reflecting telescopes.
X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes
X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes have a problem because these rays go through most
metals and glasses. Some x-ray telescopes use ring-shaped "glancing" mirrors,
made of heavy metals, that reflect the rays just a few degrees. The mirrors are
usually a section of a rotated parabola. Gamma-ray telescopes give up on
focusing entirely, and use coded aperture masks; the pattern of shadows the mask
creates can be reconstructed to form an image.
These types of telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or
high-flying balloons, since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
Are you interested in
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With the rising popularity of
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Ultima Online was one of the first
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